The Chicano Moratorium 50 Years Later:
Retracing the Mexican American Struggle Against the Vietnam War
Text and original photography by Carlos Francisco Parra
August 20, 2020
On August 29, 1970, East Los Angeles became the stage for one of the most captivating moments of the Vietnam War’s home front – the National Chicano Moratorium protests against the disproportionate loss of Mexican American servicemen in the war. The largest protest of the 1960s/1970s Chicano movement, nearly 20,000-30,000 people participated in the Moratorium. However, its message was muffled by violence between the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department and demonstrators leading to 150 arrests and four deaths, including journalist Rubén Salazar. Retrace the route of the Chicano Moratorium through East Los Angeles and rediscover Mexican American protestors’ cries for racial justice: “Chale no, we won’t go – bring the ‘carnales’ home!” [1]
QUICK SUMMARY:
- 20,000-30,000 Mexican Americans participated in the August 29, 1970 Chicano Moratorium in East Los Angeles protesting the high number of Mexican American deaths in the Vietnam War as well as racism in the U.S.
- 150 demonstrators were arrested, several injured, and 4 were killed by the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department, including newspaper and TV journalist Rubén Salazar
- The Chicano Moratorium, the largest antiwar protest organized by people of color in the U.S., is one of the key moments of the 1960s-1970s Chicano movement which fought against anti-Mexican discrimination
Why does the Chicano Moratorium matter?
Most Americans can remember the deadly anti-Vietnam War protests at Kent State University, but unfortunately even most Latinos are unaware of the Chicano Moratorium’s importance despite being the largest antiwar protest organized by people of color in U.S. history. By 1970 the U.S. had already been involved in direct military actions to support pro-U.S. South Vietnam against the communist North Vietnamese for six years. More than 58,000 U.S. servicemen died in the war by its end in April 1975 with countless more injured. However, while Mexican Americans represented only 10-12% of the U.S. population in the 1960s, they were nearly 20% of U.S deaths in Vietnam. Mexican Americans joined the U.S. military in greater numbers due to economic and social pressures. Caught on the border of two cultures, Mexican American men hoped fighting for the U.S. in Vietnam would prove that they were worthy Americans. [3]
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Many young activists fought back against pro-war politicians like President Richard Nixon and California Governor Ronald Reagan who were otherwise indifferent to Mexican American social conditions. The National Chicano Moratorium Committee – formed in 1969 by former UCLA student body president Rosalío Muñoz, Brown Beret co-founder David Sánchez and different student groups – called for a moratorium (or prohibition) on the drafting of more Mexican Americans into the war. In the view of young people like Muñoz, Sánchez, and other activists, Mexican Americans (increasingly identifying as Chicanos in the 1960s/1970s) were combat victims in Vietnam as well as targets of police brutality back home in the U.S.-Mexican border region. Many activists demanded an end to the "Chicano genocide" occurring in Vietnam and in the barrio.
18 cities, including Albuquerque, Denver, Houston, and Oakland, held marches earlier in 1970 in anticipation of the National Chicano Moratorium to be held in the city with the largest concentration of Mexican people in the U.S. – Los Angeles. Thousands of people from California and throughout the U.S.-Mexican border region attended the East L.A. Chicano Moratorium, including César Chávez and Dolores Huerta of the United Farmworkers and Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales of the Colorado-based Crusade for Justice.
Exploring the Route of the National Chicano Moratorium in East L.A.
The 3.15 mile-long route of the Chicano Moratorium in East Los Angeles began at Belvedere Park and followed Third Street, Beverly Boulevard, Atlantic Avenue, and Whittier Boulevard before ending at Laguna (Salazar) Park. You can retrace the steps of Chicano Moratorium demonstrators virtually or in person following this history journey by car, bicycle, on foot or by public transportation via L.A. Metro.
Belvedere Park
The Saturday, August 29, 1970 Moratorium march began at Belvedere Park at 10am. When initially constructed during the 1930s Great Depression by the Works Progress Administration, Belvedere Park was the largest park in unincorporated East L.A. – an important community gathering place for Mexican American families. [6]
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Nevertheless, in 1965 the California Division of Highways routed the Pomona Freeway (State Route 60) straight across Belvedere Park despite much opposition. In fact “the 60 freeway” was one of five freeways which planners plowed through East L.A. to link Los Angeles with its growing suburbs. The neglect many Mexican Americans felt from these political decisions by White American leaders was another cause for Chicano community organizing. [7]
The East L.A. Sheriff’s Station in Belvedere Park (above). Although the Chicano Moratorium focused on protesting the Vietnam War, many Chicano organizations around the U.S. protested anti-Mexican police brutality as well. The National Chicano Moratorium Committee worked with the L.A. Sheriff’s Department to keep the protests peaceful, but the Moratorium ended in violence between deputies and protestors. Lorena Oropeza and other historians have noted that despite organizers’ willingness to cooperate with law enforcement agencies, the FBI and Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) were spying on the Moratorium Committee and often planted infiltrators to provoke violence. [9]
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Demonstrators left Belvedere Park marching east from the corner of Fetterly Avenue and Third Street (mile 0). At mile 0.29 the Moratorium route briefly turned southeast onto Beverly Boulevard before turning south onto Atlantic Avenue at mile 0.43.
Whittier Boulevard: Protesting in the Heart of Mexican East Los Angeles
At mile 1.27, demonstrators turned right on Whittier Boulevard to march west through the commercial and cultural heart of East L.A. Marching on Whittier was meant to draw attention from the countless shops and restaurants along the way. However, many businesses closed for the protest.
At 4945 Whittier Boulevard, between LaVerne and Ferris avenues, demonstrators passed by the Silver Dollar Bar – a site made infamous by the Moratorium’s violent end. We will investigate this story more closely at the end of this tour.
At the corner of Whittier and Arizona Avenue (mile 1.88) an iconic sign welcomes visitors to East L.A. Known as “El Arco,” the 65-foot arch was dedicated on January 18, 1986 by the Whittier Boulevard Merchants Association of East Los Angeles. El Arco’s dedication was part of a long revitalization campaign meant to bring business back to the neighborhood after the Moratorium ended in riots. According to project architect Frank Villalobos, “The arch is making a statement. It is saying that Whittier Boulevard is here and is vital and beautiful, so come back.” [12].
Laguna (Salazar) Park
At 1pm demonstrators finally arrived at Laguna Park (3864 Whittier Blvd.) for a rally against the Vietnam War (mile 3.15). Across from the park at the northeast corner of Whittier and Ditman Avenue a mural outside of the Herbs of Mexico store by Johnny Torres commemorates the four people who died during the Chicano Moratorium.
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Herbs of Mexico, family-owned since its purchase in 1965 by Costa Rican immigrant George Cervilla, symbolizes the small businesses which have long defined East L.A. The store sells 450 types of herbs from Latin America and around the world. [16]
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Laguna Park, founded in 1940, became the Moratorium’s focal point as 20-30,000 exhausted antiwar demonstrators sat on park grass to hear speeches from 13 speakers, including Dolores Huerta, “Corky” Gonzales, César Chávez, activist lawyer Oscar Zeta Acosta, and Rosalío Muñoz. Besides opposing the Vietnam War and police brutality, speakers aimed to promoted Mexican American cultural pride, but few of them had the chance to deliver their remarks. [18]
Incident at the Green Mill Liquor Store
Less than a block away from Laguna Park is the Green Mill Liquor Store (3812 Whittier Blvd.), which sparked the violence that ended the Chicano Moratorium. About 50 demonstrators entered the small store – one of the few still open that day – to buy cold drinks after the hot 3-hour, 3-mile march.
Fearful some shoppers would leave without paying, the owner locked everyone inside until everyone paid, raising tensions. As the shoppers got restless and tried to leave, the owner called the L.A. Sheriff’s Department which arrived in increasing numbers between 2:30-3pm looking for “looters” around the store. Today the Green Mill is much like any other liquor store along Whittier. [19]
The Moratorium Plunges into Violence
After a can was thrown a sheriff’s vehicle, deputies entered Laguna Park pursuing alleged looters in full force and physically striking several protestors before ordering everyone at the rally to disperse. Crusade for Justice activist Ernesto Vigil recalls the scene:
“Having decided to use the incident at the liquor store to break up the gathering, the officers went on the offensive. Speakers on the stage attempted to calm the crowd, telling them to remain seated, but teargas canisters were landing everywhere. Some people briefly formed a line between the police and the crowd and tried to keep the two groups separated, but the police kept advancing and firing teargas. Thousands streamed from the park to escape the gas, while hundreds, incensed at the police assault, fought back with sticks, rocks, fists, and bottles. The angry crowd rushed the police and sheriffs and twice drove them from the park, catching and beating many officers. The officers returned in greater numbers and finally occupied the park, beating and arresting hundreds.” [20] |
Enrique Nava, another demonstrator, twice saw groups of 5-6 deputies subdue individual protestors. “All you could see was the batons going up and down, up and down, as fast as they could….Then the prostrate form would be dragged away.” Encouraged by police infiltrators among the Mexican American demonstrators, a riot soon began along a 12-block strip of Whittier Boulevard. Firefighters dodged gunfire, rocks, and bottles as they struggled to put out flames during the violence. 150 others demonstrators were arrested. [21]
The Silver Dollar Bar’s Place in History
The last spot associated with our National Chicano Moratorium journey takes us eastward back to the site of the Silver Dollar Bar (4945 Whittier Blvd). KMEX-34 news director Rubén Salazar and cameraman Guillermo Restrepo interviewed demonstrators and filmed the march as well as the police repression at Laguna Park. Salazar, sensing he was being followed by sheriff's deputies, decided they should walk away from the park and rest before returning to KMEX studios in Hollywood. Salazar and Restrepo stepped in the bar to use the restroom and grab a drink at the bar in the hot, stressful afternoon.
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As Salazar and Restrepo gathered inside, L.A. Sheriff’s Deputy Thomas Wilson fired a tear gas canister inside the bar, supposedly after armed men entered the bar and did not respond to his calls for them to exit. The 10-inch projectile hit Salazar in the head, killing the 42-year old newsman and filling the bar with smoke. Multiple eye witnesses disputed Wilson's claims, noting the deputy ordered several people into the bar at gunpoint (as seen in the photo below) before firing into it and filling it with smoke.
La Raza magazine photographer Raul Ruíz captured the scene at the entrance to the Silver Dollar Bar just before Rubén Salazar’s killing. [23]
An L.A. Times photographer captured this image of the Silver Dollar’s interior through the bar’s mail slot two days after Salazar was killed by a sheriff’s deputy when he was sitting on one of these bar stools. [24]
Restrepo crawled into the back alley where he ran into a group of sheriffs’ deputies. The deputies responded to Restrepo’s plea for help by ordering him to leave at gunpoint. KMEX management repeatedly called the sheriff's department for information on Salazar that evening, but were dismissed. Salazar's colleagues found out about his death on English-language TV five hours after his homicide. Terrified by Salazar’s killing, KMEX management protected Restrepo from police harassment and provided him with a lawyer to accompany him during police questioning. Spanish-language KMEX-34, a founding station of what is now the Univision Network, dedicated extensive TV coverage to the Salazar homicide investigation and called for calm as fears grew of worse riots. Nevertheless, disturbances and arrests occurred in the nearby Wilmington and Riverside.
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A controversial inquiry – which excluded significant amounts of evidence – found the Sheriff’s Department acted appropriately and no charges were filed against the agency for Salazar killing. Rather than express remorse over his department’s role in the violence, L.A. Sheriff Peter Pitchess said the FBI should further investigate Mexican American activist groups. Rumors of a cover-up have persisted for decades, especially since Salazar used his position at the L.A. Times and KMEX-34 to expose corruption and anti-Mexican brutality in the Los Angeles Police Department. [25]
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Laguna Park was renamed in Salazar’s honor on September 17, 1970. A plaque dedicated in 2014 on the park’s north side commemorates Salazar’s death. [27]
Conclusion: Mexican American Dissent and the National Chicano Moratorium
Sadly, the National Chicano Moratorium began as a highly-organized demonstration against a destructive war but ended in graphic violence. Indeed, mass media coverage of the Moratorium portrayed it mainly as a riot rather than the largest antiwar protest in the U.S. by people of color – a record still held by Mexican American East L.A. Chicano activism continued afterwards, but organizers struggled to regroup for future demonstrations against the Vietnam War and police brutality (many of which also ended in police/protestor violence). As historian Lorena Oropeza notes, “never again would so many Chicano movement participants unite in protest.” Whatever acts of aggression individual protestors may have committed, the violence that disrupted the peaceful antiwar march (and certainly the unnecessary police homicide of Ruben Salazar) is clearly a direct result of disproportionate and coordinated police repression against the 20,000-30,000 people exercising their right to free speech and peaceably assemble. [28]
Although the Vietnam War is long over, nationwide racial justice protests across the U.S. in the summer of 2020 are a reminder of the Chicano Moratorium’s unfinished business against discrimination. Over-aggressive police intervention muddled the Moratorium’s antiwar message, but confronting injustice – specifically in the form of a distant war disproportionately affecting Mexican American lives – through the gathering of young and old, women and men is a moral responsibility. So too is remembering the history of previous social struggles so we can better understand the world we live in. The echoes of the past ring loudly in retracing the route of the National Chicano Moratorium in East Los Angeles.
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Suggested Reading:
NOTES:
[1] Ernesto Chávez, Mi Raza Primero!: Nationalism, Identity, and Insurgency in the Chicano Movement in Los Angeles, 1966-1978 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 68-69; Lorena Oropeza ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra no!: Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam war Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 182; Image from Autry Museum of the American West, Twitter (Aug. 29, 2018), (https://twitter.com/theautry/status/1034857218347331584).
[2] Image from “Soldados: Chicanos In Vietnam,” Latino Public Broadcasting (http://lpbp.org/programs/soldados-chicanos-in-vietnam/).
[3] “Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics,” National Archives (https://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics); Chávez, Mi Raza Primero!, 63-66; Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 146-147; Laura Pulido, Laura Barraclough, and Wendy Cheng, A People's Guide to Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 255.
[4] “Rosalio Munoz greets Chicano Moratorium Committee demonstrators,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb709nb55z&imageonly=true).
[5] “Vintage Original Flyer for the August 29, 1970 Chicano Moratorium,” Xicanism, Tumblr (Aug. 25, 2014), (https://xicanism.tumblr.com/post/95747773658/vintage-original-flyer-for-the-august-29-1970).
[6] “Belvedere Community Regional Park,” Living New Deal (https://livingnewdeal.org/projects/belvedere-community-regional-park-los-angeles-ca/).
[7] Gilbert Estrada, “If You Build It, They Will Move: The Los Angeles Freeway System and the Displacement of Mexican East Los Angeles, 1944-1972,” Southern California Quarterly, vol. 87, no. 3 (2005): 287-315.
[8] “Chicano Moratorium Committee anti-war demonstrators cross pedestrian bridge,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb2199n7qw).
[9] Oropeza, ¡Raza Si!, 166-168; Ernesto Vigil, The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government’s War on Dissent (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999), 133-138.
[10] “National Chicano Moratorium, Los Angeles,” Herman Baca Papers, UC San Diego Library Digital Collections (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb02742812).
[11] “National Chicano Moratorium,” photograph by Sal Castro, Security Pacific National Bank Collection, Los Angeles Public Library (https://tessa.lapl.org/cdm/ref/collection/photos/id/102576).
[12] Junior Steel Company of Industry, California, built the arch for the Whittier Boulevard merchants groups for $280,000. Carol McGraw, “Rebirth of Whittier Boulevard: 65-Foot Arch Marks a Dream Come True,” Los Angeles Times (Jan. 9, 1986), (https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-09-me-14220-story.html).
[13] Estrada, “If You Build It, They Will Move,” 290.
[14] Image from Autry Museum of the American West, Twitter (Aug. 29, 2018), (https://twitter.com/theautry/status/1034857218347331584).
[15] Shmuel Gonzales, “The Solidarity and the Martyrs of the National Chicano Moratorium,” Barrio Boychick (Aug. 29, 2018), (https://barrioboychik.com/2018/08/29/the-solidarity-and-the-martyrs-of-the-national-chicano-moratorium/); Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times.
[16] “History of Herbs of Mexico,” Herbs of Mexico (https://herbsofmexico.com/store/history-of-herbs-of-mexico).
[17] “National Chicano Moratorium, Los Angeles,” Herman Baca Papers, UC San Diego Library Digital Collections (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb9591778s).
[18] Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times; Chávez, ¡Mi Raza Primero!, 69; Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 160; “Ruben Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy (https://www.laconservancy.org/locations/ruben-salazar-park).
[19] Chávez, ¡Mi Raza Primero!, 69-70.
[20] Vigil, Crusade for Justice, 139; Image, “National Chicano Moratorium,” Herald Examiner Collection, Los Angeles Public Library (https://tessa.lapl.org/cdm/ref/collection/photos/id/22613).
[21] Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 163-164; “Rubén Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy (https://www.laconservancy.org/locations/ruben-salazar-park); Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times.
[22] Image, “Aerial view of riots following Chicano Moratorium Committee antiwar protest,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library.
(http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb7r29p1p2).
[23] Image from “Sheriff Lee Baca to unseal the Ruben Salazar files,” L.A. Times Blogs (Feb. 11, 2011), (https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2011/02/sheriff-baca-to-release-ruben-salazar-files.html); Robert J. López, "Journalist’s Death Still Clouded by Questions," Los Angeles Times (Aug. 26, 1995), (https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-26-mn-39122-story.html).
[24] Image, “Scene of Ruben Salazar's death,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb3199n8b0).
[25] Vigil, Crusade for Justice, 140, 144-145; Rubén Salazar and Mario T. García, Border Correspondent: Selected Writings, 1955-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
[26] “Journalism: Rubén Salazar,” Smithsonian National Postal Museum (https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/celebrating-hispanic-heritage-culture/journalism).
[27] “Rubén Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy.
[28] Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 182.
[29] “Chicano Moratorium Committee antiwar demonstrators,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb838nb5c1).
[2] Image from “Soldados: Chicanos In Vietnam,” Latino Public Broadcasting (http://lpbp.org/programs/soldados-chicanos-in-vietnam/).
[3] “Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics,” National Archives (https://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics); Chávez, Mi Raza Primero!, 63-66; Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 146-147; Laura Pulido, Laura Barraclough, and Wendy Cheng, A People's Guide to Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 255.
[4] “Rosalio Munoz greets Chicano Moratorium Committee demonstrators,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb709nb55z&imageonly=true).
[5] “Vintage Original Flyer for the August 29, 1970 Chicano Moratorium,” Xicanism, Tumblr (Aug. 25, 2014), (https://xicanism.tumblr.com/post/95747773658/vintage-original-flyer-for-the-august-29-1970).
[6] “Belvedere Community Regional Park,” Living New Deal (https://livingnewdeal.org/projects/belvedere-community-regional-park-los-angeles-ca/).
[7] Gilbert Estrada, “If You Build It, They Will Move: The Los Angeles Freeway System and the Displacement of Mexican East Los Angeles, 1944-1972,” Southern California Quarterly, vol. 87, no. 3 (2005): 287-315.
[8] “Chicano Moratorium Committee anti-war demonstrators cross pedestrian bridge,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb2199n7qw).
[9] Oropeza, ¡Raza Si!, 166-168; Ernesto Vigil, The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government’s War on Dissent (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999), 133-138.
[10] “National Chicano Moratorium, Los Angeles,” Herman Baca Papers, UC San Diego Library Digital Collections (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb02742812).
[11] “National Chicano Moratorium,” photograph by Sal Castro, Security Pacific National Bank Collection, Los Angeles Public Library (https://tessa.lapl.org/cdm/ref/collection/photos/id/102576).
[12] Junior Steel Company of Industry, California, built the arch for the Whittier Boulevard merchants groups for $280,000. Carol McGraw, “Rebirth of Whittier Boulevard: 65-Foot Arch Marks a Dream Come True,” Los Angeles Times (Jan. 9, 1986), (https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-09-me-14220-story.html).
[13] Estrada, “If You Build It, They Will Move,” 290.
[14] Image from Autry Museum of the American West, Twitter (Aug. 29, 2018), (https://twitter.com/theautry/status/1034857218347331584).
[15] Shmuel Gonzales, “The Solidarity and the Martyrs of the National Chicano Moratorium,” Barrio Boychick (Aug. 29, 2018), (https://barrioboychik.com/2018/08/29/the-solidarity-and-the-martyrs-of-the-national-chicano-moratorium/); Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times.
[16] “History of Herbs of Mexico,” Herbs of Mexico (https://herbsofmexico.com/store/history-of-herbs-of-mexico).
[17] “National Chicano Moratorium, Los Angeles,” Herman Baca Papers, UC San Diego Library Digital Collections (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb9591778s).
[18] Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times; Chávez, ¡Mi Raza Primero!, 69; Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 160; “Ruben Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy (https://www.laconservancy.org/locations/ruben-salazar-park).
[19] Chávez, ¡Mi Raza Primero!, 69-70.
[20] Vigil, Crusade for Justice, 139; Image, “National Chicano Moratorium,” Herald Examiner Collection, Los Angeles Public Library (https://tessa.lapl.org/cdm/ref/collection/photos/id/22613).
[21] Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 163-164; “Rubén Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy (https://www.laconservancy.org/locations/ruben-salazar-park); Powers and Perlman, “One Dead, 40 Hurt in East L.A. Riot,” Los Angeles Times.
[22] Image, “Aerial view of riots following Chicano Moratorium Committee antiwar protest,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library.
(http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb7r29p1p2).
[23] Image from “Sheriff Lee Baca to unseal the Ruben Salazar files,” L.A. Times Blogs (Feb. 11, 2011), (https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2011/02/sheriff-baca-to-release-ruben-salazar-files.html); Robert J. López, "Journalist’s Death Still Clouded by Questions," Los Angeles Times (Aug. 26, 1995), (https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-26-mn-39122-story.html).
[24] Image, “Scene of Ruben Salazar's death,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb3199n8b0).
[25] Vigil, Crusade for Justice, 140, 144-145; Rubén Salazar and Mario T. García, Border Correspondent: Selected Writings, 1955-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
[26] “Journalism: Rubén Salazar,” Smithsonian National Postal Museum (https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/celebrating-hispanic-heritage-culture/journalism).
[27] “Rubén Salazar Park,” Los Angeles Conservancy.
[28] Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí!, 182.
[29] “Chicano Moratorium Committee antiwar demonstrators,” Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive, UCLA Library. (http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=13030/hb838nb5c1).